Monday, April 30, 2012

WHAT IS GRAMMAR?





こんにちは!
パンダ教授再登場です。さて、私たちは、研究論文からの短編小説や小説に至るまで、どうすればより良い作品を書くことができるのかを、これからシリーズで紹介していこうと考えています。前回は言葉遣いやスタイルについて話しました。今回も、作家として必要な文章術について、重要な点をピックアップして簡単に説明します。

文法
 1926年にヘンリー・ファウラーが書いた『現代英語語法辞典』のなかにある「文法」のセクションは、学習意欲が一気に低下するようなゲンナリする話ばかりです。
多分、当時,彼はちょっと機嫌が悪かったのかもしれません。私たちにとって文法は言葉の形式や構造を扱う言語学の一部です。文法は英語を書く話す人が直感で得たものをもっと明確に表現するためものです。私たちが、これは文法通りだとか、文法を無視しているというとき、世界中どの言語であろうと、その判断の基準になっているのは,語法のルールに従っているのか無視しているのかということです。文法は非常に古い時代から研究されている一筋縄ではいかない分野です。

文章を主語と動詞に分けることを最初に考えたのがプラトンです。彼は、文法を学んでいる人をグラマリアンと名付けました。

,語法
語法は話す,あるいは書くときの言葉の使い方です。わたしたちは目的によって言葉を使い分けています。これにはいくつかのレベルがあります。英語は大きく分けると3種類あります。

語法のレベル
1:標準英語(フォーマル):They have done nothing.
2:標準英語(インフォーマル/口語)They’ve done nothing.
3:非標準英語(フレンドリー)ほとんどスラング、あるいは方言
They haven’t done anything,
“Dey ain’t done nothin’,

標準英語と非標準英語の主な違いは、代名詞と動詞の形に現れてきます。

例えば 標準英語を話す人は“brought”を使いますが,非標準英語では”brung”になります。
非標準英語と言われている単語,文章は、スラング以外にもたくさんあります。


どの文法を学ぶか
文法ってそんなにたくさんあるの? ひとつだけじゃないの?
はい、そのとおりです。時代と共に言葉がどのように変化していったか,また言語の比較も含め,文法にはいくつか種類があります。でも、大丈夫。私たちが学ぶ文法は2種類だけです。あなたのスピーチとライティングを改善するために学ばなければならない文法はたった2種類だけです。
記述言語学によって生成される文法(Descriptive grammar)はモノに名前を与えます。(名刺,形容詞,動詞などの品詞のこと)
この文法では、品詞と,その働きを学習します。
いい加減な学び方をすると,下記のようなことを言い残して、あっという間に海に転落します。
「連結動詞”appear”の叙述名詞(主格名詞)として機能する動名詞句のなかで、balloon は動名詞の目的語である」

でも、こんな専門的な話はしません。とはいえ、個々の単語,フレーズが正しいか間違っているかを理解するためには品詞を覚えることは大事なことです。
これから学ばなければならない文法の大部分を占めているのが機能文法(Functional grammar)です。これは言葉が適切に働いているときに,どのような振る舞いをしているのかをあなたに教えてくれます。文章が正しく組み立られていることを保証し、伝えようとしていることにフィットするもの。”I”なのか”Me”なのか、どちらを使えばいいのか悩んでいるとき、それは機能文法の問題を解いているのです。文法の勉強を成功させるために、この公式を使います。
記述文法少々+機能文法たくさん= 良い文法

今日のレッスンはここまでです。次回はスラングと標準英語についてお話しましょう。
それではまた。

Hi! This is Professor Panda again. Today we are going to continue with our series of articles on how to write better compositions, everything from research papers to short stories and novels. Last time we discussed diction and style and we will continue along that line with a brief discussion of some things that are very important to one’s success as a writer: grammar and usage.


WHAT IS GRAMMAR?


“Grammar,” Henry Fowler wrote in his 1926, Dictionary of Modern English Usage, is “a poor despised branch of learning.” Well maybe he was a bit grumpy that day. However, to the rest of us, grammar is a branch of linguistics (the study of language) that deals with the form and the structure of words. It is an attempt to make clear what the skilled writer and speaker of English does by instinct. When people are said to have “good” or “bad” grammar, the understanding is that they choose to obey or ignore the rules of accepted usage associated with their language whether it is English or Japanese.
Grammar is one of the oldest fields of study, as well as one of the most durable. Even Plato can be labeled as an early grammarian (a person who studies grammar), because he was responsible for dividing the sentence into subject and verb, a division still exists today!


WHAT IS USAGE?


Usage is the normal way we use language in speaking and writing. Because we use language for different purposes, there are various levels of usage. The following table lists the “big three” in English:

LEVEL OF USAGE

  1. Standard English (formal usage) – “They have done nothing.”
  2. Standard English (informal (conversational) usage) – “They’ve done nothing.”
  3. Non-Standard (“Friendly-speak”) usage – “They haven’t done anything,” or the extreme “Dey ain’t done nothin’,” which is almost entirely slang or might even be considered part of a dialect.

The main difference between Standard English and Non-Standard English (“Friendly-speak”) appears in the use of pronouns and certain verb forms. For example, where a speaker in Standard English would use “brought,” a speaker of Non-standard English would use “brung.” There are also several words and expressions that are considered non-standard, such as slang words.

DECIDING WHICH GRAMMAR TO LEARN

Which grammar? Does that mean that there is more than one? Yes, indeed there are several different types of grammar, including historical (how language has changed through the centuries) and comparative (comparing languages). But don’t worry too much. Here we will only be interested in two types of grammar: the two you have to know in order to improve your speech and writing.
Descriptive grammar gives names to things: the parts of speech and the parts of a sentence. When you learn descriptive grammar, you understand what every word is (its part of speech) and what every word does (its function in the sentence). If a person is not careful, however, descriptive grammar can go overboard fast and you can end up saying things like “balloon is the object of the gerund, in a gerund phrase that is acting as the predicate nominative of the linking verb ‘appear’.” Don’t worry because we will not go into that level of terminology; besides, I’m not quite sure what that all means anyway. There is, however, one important reason to learn some grammar terms and that is to understand why a particular word or phrase is correct or incorrect.
Functional grammar makes up most of what we will learn. Functional grammar tells you how words behave when they are doing their jobs properly. Functional grammar guides you to the right expression; that is, the one that fits what you are trying to say, by insuring that the sentence is put together correctly. When you are agonizing over whether to say “I” or “me,” you are actually solving a problem of functional grammar. So in order to be successful in our study of grammar, we will use this formula: a little descriptive grammar + a lot of functional grammar = better grammar overall.

Well, that’s today’s lesson. Next time we will talk more about Standard English as well as slang. Hope to see you then!


Monday, June 27, 2011

英語を勉強しましょう LET'S STUDY ENGLISH!





過去数年にわたって、私は非公式のレッスン (英語の文法、語法、スペル、および 作 文)を提供してきました.
日本の 友人たちに、レッスンを少しだけ展開し、私の"生徒が レッスンをできる場所, 米国とカナダではなく英国でも 話されている"西洋の英語"で問題を議論し解決策を見つけ、実践できる場所を日本で提供することを決めました.
.
老若男女 - 英語を勉強したい人は誰でもご参加ください、
一緒に英語を楽しみましょう!

2009年、 岐阜の友人たちのすべてのための個人的な英語のクラスを開くつもりです
英語を勉強しましょう

Monday, September 6, 2010

SIGHT WORDS

Hi! It's me - Professor Panda with a new and really important new English lesson. Today we are going to revisit, SIGHT WORDS! What is a SIGHT WORD?

  • A sight word is any word that should be known to a reader automatically. Sight words are pronounced without thinking about how the word is spelled. A common first sight word is a person's name. Beginning readers are at an advantage when they learn to read sight words that occur frequently in print. However, it is possible to read a word on sight but not know the meaning of the word. For example, a student might be able to read on sight "there, their and they're" but not understand the differences in meaning. So, learning words by sight only, should not be seen as a complete reading solution.

  • It is estimated that there are approximately 100 to 220 common words in English that require specific memorization.

So, here are the first group of sight words for you. Memorize them and if you are not clear on their meaning or use, look them up in a nice dictionary.

A very good way to learn sight words is to make a flash card for each one. Write the word down on one side, and on the other, write down a sentence using that word. Look at these cards at least once a day, or more! The more you practice, the more automatic they will become, and the better your English will be.

Here are the first 15 sight words you should know:

the Did you see the dog?

of I saw two of them.

and I saw Kimiko and Ichiro.

a I saw a cat.

to Takumi went to the store.

in Shou is in the house.

is Mr. Saito is here.

are Are you going home?

that Did you see that bird?

it I put it on the table.

he He took my bike!

was Kouhei was late for school.

for Mai made this for you.

on The cat is on the chair.

are Aoi and Aya are cute.

Remember: Each sentence begins with a capital (big) letter and ends with either a period, question mark, or exclamation mark. As you practice these sight words and become more comfortable with them, try to make up your own sentences.

Saturday, January 30, 2010

THE WONDERFUL TEAKETTLE: QUIZ ANSWERS


Here are the answers to the quiz on the Japanese story, The Wonderful Teakettle:

Answers:

1. Why was the old priest so happy? Because he had found a new treasure - his "new" teakettle.
2. What was his new teakettle made of? Brass
3. What did the third boy see whenhe peeped through the screen? He was just in time to see the new teakettle give a spring into the air, turn a somersault, and come down in the form of a furry, little badger.
4. What did all the boys see when they looked through the screen together? Only a teakettle.
5. What did the teakettle do when the old priest put it on the fire to heat? The kettle gave a leap up into the air, spilling the hot water all over the floor! “Hot, hot! I’m burning!” it cried. And, like a flash, it was no longer a kettle but a little furry badger.
6. Who did the old priest sell the teakettle to? The tinker.
7. Where did he take the teakettle to after he bought it? He took it home with him, where he bent it back into shape and mended it.
8. What did the badger say he liked to eat now and then? The badger said, "Oh! I like a little sugar now and then.”
9. What did the people who saw the dancing badger on the tightroop do after they saw it? Those who had seen it once came to see it again.
10. Where did the owner of the teakettle put the teakettle after he bacame rich? He put his beloved teakettle in a little temple on top of a hill.

11. Bonus question: Using the story, describe what a badger looks like. It was furry, had four feet, and a bushy tail.

How did you do?

Monday, January 18, 2010

THE WONDERFUL TEAKETTLE: QUIZ




Hi! It’s me again, Professor Panda! Sorry I am so late, but sometimes things just get too busy around here! Today here is the short quiz I promised on the story about the teakettle. There are ten questions and one bonus question. Each one is worth 10 points. This is a “fill-in” quiz, so you get to write your answers in English to each question. At the end of the week, Friday (Japan time) I will give you the answers. You can also send me your answers (in English) by email to Panda_English@yahoo.com and I will grade them for you. 100 points is an A, 80 points is a B, and 70 points is a C. If you get the bonus question correct, you get another 10 points. Read the story again and then take the quiz. Good Luck!

Professor Pannibal P. Panda, PhD.

1. Why was the old priest so happy?
2. What was his new teakettle made of?
3. What did the third boy see when he peeped through the screen?
4. What did all the boys see when they looked through the screen together?
5. What did the teakettle do when the old priest put it on the fire to heat?
6. Who did the old priest sell the teakettle to?
7. Where did he take the teakettle to after he bought it?
8. What did the badger say he liked to eat now and then?
9. What did the people who saw the dancing badger on the tightrope do after they saw it?
10. Where did the owner of the teakettle put the teakettle after he became rich?
11. Bonus: Using the story, describe what a badger looks like.

Saturday, January 2, 2010

HAPPY NEW YEAR


Hi! It's me, Professor Panda! I hope everyone had a wonderful Christmas season and I wish each and every one of you a very happy 2010!

I want to start out the new year with a really simple reading comprehension exercise. It is a cute little folktale from Japan called The Wonderful Teakettle. It is from a book, published in 1904 by Teresa Peirce Williston, titled Japanese Fairytales and will soon be republished by Shisei-Do Publications with the original illustrations by Ogawa Sanshi.

Please read the this simple story. You can read it several times if you want and in 5 days, I will publish a short quiz to see if you understood everything you read. Please enjoy our story.


THE WONDERFUL TEAKETTLE


The old priest was happy because he had found a new treasure. As he climbed the hill to the temple where he lived, he often stopped to pat his beautiful brass teakettle. When he reached the temple, he called the three boys who were his pupils.

“Look here!” he cried to them. “Just see the beautiful kettle I found in a little shop I passed. I got it very cheap, too!”

The boys admired it, but smiled a little to themselves, because they could not see what he wanted with an old brass kettle.

“Now go on with your studies, “ said the priest. “ I will hear you recite after a while.” So the boys went into the next room, and the old priest sat down to admire his prize. He sat and looked at it so long that he grew sleepy; and nod - bob went his head until in a moment, he was fast asleep.
The boys in the next room studied very hard for a few minutes, but they were boys and no one was there to watch over them; so, you can imagine what they were doing by the time the priest was fast asleep. Suddenly, they heard a noise in the next room.


“There, the priest is awake,” whispered one.

“Oh, dear! Now we will have to behave,” said the second.

The third one was more daring. He crept up and peeped through the screen to see if it really was the priest. He was just in time to see the new teakettle give a spring into the air, turn a somersault, and come down in the form of a furry, little badger, with a sharp nose, bushy tail, and four little feet.

How that badger did scamper and dance! It danced on the floor! It danced on the table! It danced up the side of a shōji screen!

“Oh, my! Oh, my!” cried the boy, tumbling backward. “It will dance on me next! Oh my!”

“What are you talking about?” said the other two. “What will dance on you?”

“That goblin will dance on me! I know it will! It danced on the floor and it danced on the table, and it danced on the screen, and now I know it is coming to dance on me!” said the boy.

“What do you mean?” said the others. “There is no goblin here.” Then they all looked through the screen and there sat the kettle, just as it had been before.



“You little silly!” cried one of the other boys. “Do you call that a goblin? That looks very much like a teakettle to my eyes.”

“Hush!” said the third boy. “The priest is waking up. We had better get to work again.”

The priest woke up and heard the busy lips of his pupils. “What good boys I have!” he thought. “Now, while they are studying, I will just brew myself a cup of tea.”

He lit his little charcoal fire, filled his kettle with fresh water, and put it over the fire to heat.
Suddenly, the kettle gave a leap up into the air, spilling the hot water all over the floor! “Hot, hot! I’m burning!” it cried. And, like a flash, it was no longer a kettle but a little furry badger, with a sharp nose, bushi tail, and four little feet.


“Oh, help! Help! There is a goblin!” shrieked the priest. In rushed the three boys to see what was the matter. They saw no kettle at all, but in its place, was a very angry badger prancing and sputtering around the room.


They all took sticks and began to beat the badger, but suddenly, it was only a brass kettle again that answered, “Clang, Clang!” with every blow.


When the priest saw that he could gain nothing by beating the kettle, he began to plan how he might get rid of it. Just then, the tinker came by.


“This is my chance,” thought the priest. And so he called, “Tinker, Tinker, come and see what I have for you. Here is an old kettle I found. It is no use to me, but you could mend it up and sell it.”


The tinker saw that it was a good kettle, so he bought it and took it home. He pressed it carefully into shape again and mended all the broken places and once more, it was a fine looking kettle.
That night, the tinker awoke and found a badger looking at him with his small, bright eyes.
“Now see here, Mr. Tinker,” said the badger. “I think that you are a kind man, so I have something to tell you. I am really a wonderful teakettle, and I can turn into a badger whenever I wish, as you can see. I can do other things too, more wonderful than that!”



The kindhearted tinker said, “Well, if you are a badger, you must want something to eat. What can I get for you?”


“Oh! I like a little sugar now and then,” replied the badger, “and I don’t like to be set on fire or beaten with sticks. However, I am sure that you will never treat me that way. If you wish to take me around to different villages, I can sing and dance on the tightrope for you.”


The tinker did exactly that; and crowds came to see the wonderful kettle. Those who had seen it once came to see it again; and those who had not seen it, came to see why the people liked it so well.



At last, the tinker became rich. Then he put his beloved teakettle in a little temple on top of a hill, where it might always rest and have all the sweets it wanted.

Saturday, December 5, 2009

Could, Could Have Been, Could Be


Hi! It's me, Professor Panda, PhD. Today I wanted to answer a question about the word "could" from a reader. Because this word and its uses can cause a lot of confusion, I thought I would share this question with everyone! So here it is!


Could is what is known as an AUXILIARY VERB; that is, a verb used to help form the tenses, aspects, or moods of other verbs such as, have, do , be, should must, can. The word could is used in verb phrases that have a past, present, or future time reference and is generally equal to can in meaning and use, with the following functions:

  1. Expressing a shade of doubt or a smaller degree of ability or possibility such as in: It could be so.
  2. Expressing permission, as in: Could I go?
  3. Forming the present condition as in: It would help if he could wait.
  4. Forming the past condition as in: He would have left if he could.
  5. Expressing or suggesting politely less certainty than the word can, as in: Could you wait?

Now as to your question:

I often see or listen to the following phrase: " a could have been. " For example, “He is a could have been;” or, “It is a could have been story;” or “a could have been beauty Queen.” What is the meaning " a could have been? "

First let us look at the present tense of the world can, as it applies to your phrases:

  1. He can be…
  2. He is a can be…
  3. It is a can be story…
  4. … can be beauty queen

In these phrases, the subjects (he, it, and she (which is implied here) have the ability to do or to be something: he has the ability to be, the story can be, she can be a beauty queen. Could refers us back to the past. While your phrases are idiomatic, that is, they are used as idioms (the usual way in which words of a particular language are joined together to express a thought, with particular reference to a dialect of a population or community, region, social class, etc.) they are still acceptable forms of English for conversation as well as informal forms of writing (news articles, essays, short stories, etc. – almost everything except formal research papers or a high school and university thesis). What these phrases say are as follows:

  1. He is a person who could have been (what ever it is, a ball player, actor, student, etc.).
  2. It could have been a story (if/but…….).
  3. (She) could have been a beauty queen (if/but…..).

although, each of these idioms tend to be a bit negative or critical in their use.

Next time, we will discuss the phrase “wanna be” or more clearly “want to be,” which is similar in its use.

P. Panda, PhD.